| ## 32-Bit I/O With Warp Speed Written by Holger Veit

| [Note: Files can be found here. Ed.] ## Introduction Well, I have a little bit of a bad feeling. What I am going to describe in this article is something that should not be possible at the level of user application programs: direct I/O. This is the ability of a user program to talk to hardware resources directly, not controlled or even monitored by the operating system. Although it might have been common practice in a simple program loader like DOS, it is normally not a good idea in a modern multitasking or multi-user system. In fact, OS/2, Windows NT, and the various UNIX derived operating systems, spend considerable efforts to hide this practice from user applications, or explicitly prohibit it. The reasons for that are obvious and well known: User programs could access system resources, that means here hardware devices, in an uncoordinated or uncooperative way, and could therefore severely influence or even damage data integrity, system stability, and security. While the operating system tries to distribute the limited resources in a fair way among the various competitors, a program that circumvents the care of the operating system, could grab such a resource exclusively. Even worse, it might struggle with the operating system for control, which will unlikely have good consequences on the overall system throughput. Needless to say, a malign process like a computer virus could use a feature like direct I/O to intentionally destroy data. However, even with good intention, a user program is not immune against software bugs that might not only crash the program itself but also take the system with it into the abyss. On the other hand, people usually do not want to have I/O access to write improved support for complicated disk or video devices. Rather they have simple I/O devices like data acquisition cards, parallel I/O boards, EPROM programmer adapters or alike, that do not come with OS/2 support at all. Writing a full-blown OS/2 device driver in order to reuse an old 8255 port card seems like shooting sparrows with cannons. In such a case, where neither interrupt handling or DMA, nor physical access to adapter memory is involved, direct I/O appears to be a feasible alternative. In the following chapter, we will look at the official methods that OS/2 offers to do I/O. ## Doing Port I/O: The Front Doors #### Device drivers No doubt, as was already stated, a device driver is the real solution. Keep critical tasks away from the user is the rule of the game. The path to this is quite stony, however. As often criticized, device drivers in OS/2 are still 16 bit code. This has several disadvantages. You need to code entirely in assembler, or find a C compiler that still produces 16 bit code. Most of the standard drivers that come with OS/2 were built with either MASM 5.1 or MSC 6.0. It is not only the problem that IBM relies on products of a competitor here, but simply that these products are no longer available in stores, and the successors no longer support OS/2. Fortunately, the recent, widely available Watcom 10.0 compiler is usable for device driver development. Coding in 16 bit throws the developer back into the stone age where he has to fight against 64K segments, far and near calls, moving around selectors and grouping segments in a certain order. Nevertheless, one could think about writing a device driver that you can use to read and write I/O ports by issuing special DosDevIOCtl instructions. Surprisingly, this is an unnecessary enterprise! Not many OS/2 users know that every stock OS/2 system comes with a device driver that comes with such a functionality: TESTCFG.SYS. Besides some other functions that are beyond the scope of this article, TESTCFG.SYS offers two ioctls, one for reading I/O ports and another one for writing. See table 1 for the description of the functions and the simple program fragment in figure 1 for an example.
    Device name      "TESTCFG$"

    Description      Read data from I/O port
    IOCTL Category	0x80
    IOCTL Function	0x41

    Parameter packet	 struct {
    		 USHORT portaddr;
    		 USHORT size;
    	     } param

    Data packet      struct {
    		 ULONG dataread;
    	     } data;

    Remarks	   size=1: read 8-bit
    	     size=2: read 16-bit
    	     size=3: read 32-bit

    Description      Write data to I/O port
    IOCTL Category	0x80
    IOCTL Function	0x42

    Parameter packet	 struct {
    		 USHORT portaddr;
    		 USHORT size;
    		 ULONG datawrite;
    	     } param

    Data packet      none

    Remarks	   size parameter same as for function 0x42 param packet in
    		   "Writing OS/2 2.1 Device Drivers in C" book is wrong!
Table 1: Ioctl API of TESTCFG.SYS for doing direct I/O
    /* direct I/O with TESTCFG.SYS */

    #define INCL_DOSFILEMGR
    #define INCL_DOSDEVIOCTL
    #include <os2.h>

    HFILE fd;
    ULONG action, len;
    APIRET rc;
    struct {
    	  USHORT port;
    	  USHORT size;
    } par;
    struct {
    	  ULONG data;
    } dta;

    rc = DosOpen("/dev/testcfg$",
    	  &fd, &action, 0,
    	  FILE_NORMAL, FILE_OPEN,
    	  OPEN_ACCESS_READWRITE | OPEN_SHARE_DENYNONE,
    	  (PEAOP2)NULL);
    /* check error code.... */

    par.port = 0x84;		/* use a mostly harmless port */
    par.size = 1;		/* read byte */

    rc = DosDevIOCtl(fd, 0x80, 0x41,
    	  (PULONG)&par, sizeof(par), &len,
    	  (PULONG)&dta, sizeof(dta), &len);
    /* check error code.... */

    printf("Data was 0x%lx\n", dta.data);

    rc = DosClose(fd);
    /* needless to say: check.... */
Figure 1: Sample code to read a port through TESTCFG.SYS There is one drawback, and we will hear this argument again real soon: it is slow. Why? Now see, we are calling this function from a 32 bit user program. The DosDevIOCtl() will enter the kernel through a call gate which is some kind of a protected door. The kernel will then first check the validity of the parameter and data packets, identify the target driver to perform this function, and then call the appropriate driver entry point. Note the driver is 16 bit code, so the kernel must convert the addresses of the parameter and data packets from 0:32 bit user space addresses to 16:16 bit device driver addresses. Finally, the driver itself must decode the command and dispatch it to its routines. I once tried to trace such an ioctl call with the kernel debugger, and eventually gave up counting after following some hundred instructions without seeing any driver code. Compare this with a single IN or OUT instruction. That's bureaucracy! #### IOPL Segments The second method is actually a leftover from earlier OS/2 1.X versions, hence it is a 16 bit technique as well. Let me elaborate here a bit on the method used to prevent I/O access by user programs. The Intel 286 and later (386, 486, Pentium) processors can execute code at four different privilege levels. Because they are nested and usually drawn as concentric circles, these levels are frequently referred to as privilege rings (or protection rings). Ring 0 is the level with the highest privilege, and ring 3 has the lowest privilege (see figure 2). Figure 2: The privilege rings and their use in OS/2 If a process wants to run with a higher privilege than the one it currently has, it must go through a special gate; one might also compare a gate with a tunnel or "wormhole". There are several types of gates such as interrupt, trap, or task gates. The only interesting type for us is the call gate. A call gate allows a one-way transfer of execution from a segment with some privilege to another one with same or higher privilege. The other direction, that is from a "trustworthy" high-privileged code segment to a less trusted lower-privileged segment, is not possible. See figure 2. Figure 3: Allowed and forbidden transactions with call gates Two bits in the processor status register (the IOPL field) determine the level that is necessary to execute I/O CPU instructions. Any code with less than this privilege level will trigger an exception at the first attempt to execute such an instruction. Table 2 lists the affected instructions. Certain instructions will even cause an exception if the process has the privilege to I/O. These instructions require ring 0 privilege. Table 2 also lists these instructions (386 processor).
Instruction is protected and causes an exception... | Affected instructions
--- | ---
if not in Ring 0 | LIDT, LGDT, LMSW, CLSTS, HLT MOV DR*, reg / MOV reg, DR* MOV TR*, reg / MOV reg, TR* MOV CR*, reg / MOV reg, CR*
if in Real Mode or in Virtual 8086 Mode | All the above plus LTR, STR, LLDT, SLDT, LAR, LSL, VERR, VERW ARPL
if not at IOPL privilege level or higer (in Protected Mode) | All ring 0 instructions plus OUT, OUTS, REP INS, REP OUTS STI, CLI
if not at IOPL privilege level or higher (in Virtual 8086 Mode) | All ring 0 and Virtual 8086 Mode instructions plus INT n (Note 1) PUSHF, POPF, STI, CLI, IRET (Note 2)
Note 1: INT 3 (opcode 0xcc) and INTO are not affected Note 2: I/O instructions are enabled or disabled by the I/O permission map in the 386 task state segment Table 2: Privileged Instructions In OS/2, the required privilege level for I/O is ring 2 or better, and tough luck, any user process only runs in ring 3 (figure 2). In order to get a controlled way to do I/O, the OS/2 developers provided a method to execute 16 bit code at ring 2 level. When the linker produces an executable from several object files, it accepts a special attribute for code segments under certain circumstances. This attribute is named IOPL and is specified in the segment declaration section of a linker definition file (Consult appropriate linker documentation). The linker then annotates the code in a way that every call of a routine in this IOPL segment will be directed through a call gate, rather than a simple call. When such a program is loaded into memory for execution, the loader code in the kernel will generate a R3->R2 call gate for each target called in an IOPL segment (see call gate X in figure 3). Each time such a call gate is entered, the processor will gain ring 2 privilege and lose it again when leaving by a normal return instruction. Apparently, this looked like a feature which could be abused, so the IBM developers restricted it in a way that only segments in a DLL can get the IOPL attribute. This appears to be a built-in feature of the program loader, not just the linker, as patching the appropriate tables in the executable will not work. This restriction is not a bad idea, as it is now no longer possible to make an executable disguising as a normal program, but doing I/O inside. There must be an accompanying DLL, to arouse suspicion - or at least should do so. This could have been an almost ideal way for moderate I/O - if IBM had provided a similar method for 32 bit applications as well. There is no restriction in the processor itself concerning 32 bit I/O, as one might suspect; it is an intentional limitation. Since IBM will not support 16 bit software any longer in OS/2 for the PowerPC, those unsecure interfaces will disappear in the future. Nevertheless, you can call routines in such a 16 bit IOPL DLL from a 32 bit executable, and there are several example files floating around in various FTP archives. The key item here is thunking. The main problem with calling code of another size gender is that the program counter as well as the stack pointer needs to be adjusted to the corresponding other size. If address parameters are passed through the stack, these addresses need to be converted as well. This is what a thunking routine does. Usually the compiler generates such routines automatically when a 16 bit routine is declared, and this is why many high- level programmers do not encounter them at all. However, even if they seem to be invisible, they nevertheless contribute a considerable share to performance degradation if an I/O routine in the IOPL DLL is called from a 32 bit application. ## Doing I/O: Searching for Mouse Holes In the last section, we have seen that it is possible to do direct I/O with the already available facilities. The difficulty is just the excessive overhead that makes their use quite unattractive, and with the text of the preface still in mind, there can be no doubt that this is not incidental. However, as some of you might know about my ambitious pet project, it was indispensable for me to find an extremely fast alternative to the above stuff. Although I prefer writing a device driver for that kind of applications, it seemed entirely impossible to put a complete Xserver into a 16 bit device driver (that beast, with PEX, is as large as 2 MB - 32 bit code!). Moving only the critical parts into a driver might work; unfortunately the XFree86 people are too creative for me, so it would be expectable that I'd be hurrying to get their recent changes integrated for the rest of my life. So let us discuss possible alternatives. #### Outwitting the Program Loader? As we have seen in the discussion of the IOPL mechanism, the bottleneck is the thunking code. Interestingly, there exist types of call gates that can mediate among 32 and 16 bit code and do the necessary conversion of the program counter and stack pointer automatically. Unfortunately, the program loader refuses to make them for us. Likewise, there seems to be no chance to have it create a 32->32 bit call gate. A brute force approach could be trying to identify the call gates it made for us and redirect them to the routines that we want to run with privilege. Since we need certain instructions to manipulate the GDT or LDT (more on that later), this is not possible from a user program, because the kernel protects these structures well in a ring 0 segment. Similar to the restriction not to pass a call gate in the wrong direction, a process cannot read, let alone write, data of a higher ring level. This is not a real problem, if we have an accomplice with sufficient rights to do the dirty work for us: a device driver. However, besides being a bad hack, such a solution is still half-hearted. Once we find a method to manipulate call gates, we no longer need to have this code separated in a DLL, as with the IOPL anachronism, but we could keep it in the executable itself. Furthermore, while we are on this way, couldn't we just manipulate the code segment of the user process into a ring 0 one? Let us think about this possibility. #### User Processes at Ring 0? During reading, you might have thought about the question how the processor knows which privilege the currently executed code has, and where it keeps this information. This is pretty simple in protected mode: somewhere in memory there are two tables that describe the location, size and properties of each memory segment. They are called global descriptor table (GDT) and local descriptor table (LDT). While the GDT describes system wide structures, there is usually an LDT for each process in the system. Two special registers of the CPU, GDTR and LDTR, point to the beginning of the tables. Each table is an array with elements of eight bytes in size. The index into these arrays is fairly simple: it is formed from the upper 13 bits of the 16 bit segment registers (CS, DS, ES, SS, FS, GS). Bit 2 of these registers distinguishes between LDT and GDT, and the two lowest bits describe the current privilege the CPU is running. What is most important is that any segment descriptor in the tables also contains two bits that determine the privilege level the code runs under. So the way to go seems clear: get the content of the CS register, find the corresponding GDT or LDT entry, and switch the privilege bits to ring 0. This is possible. However, this game will likely end very fast with a trap and the register display on the text mode screen. Why? We have seen in figure 3 that privileged ring 0 code will never execute less privileged code. However, certain system or application DLLs required by the user program still have ring 3 level. So the unfortunate consequence is: if your user program has privileges, it will lose the ability to call several system functions. The immediately upcoming flash of an idea of promoting the system and user DLLs to the same level as well, is hopefully not meant seriously, as it will end up with all software running privileged. It therefore appears that any trick to raise the privilege of the user process introduces more problems rather than solving them. Let us try to approach the problem from a totally different side. Maybe we could reduce the overhead of performing functions in a device driver. A Back Door into a Driver: DevHlp_DynamicAPI Time to dive a bit deeper into a device driver. The kernel provides a set of routines known as device helper functions to a device driver. One of these helpers appears particularly attractive, as it promises to create a ring 0 gate directly into a device driver. So the idea is to build the I/O functions into the driver and create such a dynamic API entry point. This will return a GDT selector that a user process can enter with an indirect intersegment call instruction. Estimating the overhead, this should be considerably faster than the bureaucratic way of TESTCFG.SYS. At least that's how it works in theory. In fact, I programmed it this way, and it worked, but it did not even reach the slow speed of TESTCFG.SYS. Careful single stepping showed the following: the DevHlp_DynamicAPI created the call gate, but the gate did not point straight to the driver routine I wrote for the I/O access. Instead, it pointed to somewhere in the kernel, into a routine DYNAM_API_4. This entry point then performed almost all the fiddling I observed earlier when tracing the ioctl of TESTCFG.SYS. What was even worse was what the "4" in the label of the first routine told me. I had broached a scarce resource. Analysis showed that there are only 16 of these entry points available system wide, and mine was already the fifth one in use. I have not the slight idea about the other four clients, but it does not seem to be a good idea to deliberately use up one of those expensive and rare interfaces. But in principle, the idea was correct. ## /DEV/FASTIO$ - the Final Way Okay. We just managed to get a transforming (32->16bit) call gate, that just happens to point to the wrong address. It was a matter of seconds to find the address of the corresponding GDT entry, and redirect it to the expected position. A kernel debugger is really a neat tool for the hacker. It worked! At this point, calling the DevHlp_DynamicAPI function becomes useless, and will just occupy a later unusable entry point in the kernel. A quick look into the list of device helper functions offers the function DevHlp_AllocGDTSelector. We acquire a default GDT selector for exclusive use by the driver, and "adjust" it to form a 32->16 bit R3->R0 call gate into the I/O routine section of the driver. Have a look at the code fragment in the FASTIO$ driver (figure 4) which does it all.
              .386p
    _acquire_gdt   proc  far
          pusha

          mov     ax, word ptr [_io_gdt32]          ; get selector
          or      ax,ax
          jnz     aexit                             ; if we didn't have one
                                                    ; make one
          xor     ax, ax
          mov     word ptr [_io_gdt32], ax          ; clear gdt save
          mov     word ptr [gdthelper], ax          ; helper

          push    ds
          pop     es                                ; ES:DI = addr of
          mov     di, offset _io_gdt32              ; _io_gdt32
          mov     cx, 2                             ; two selectors
          mov     dl, DevHlp_AllocGDTSelector       ; get GDT selectors
          call    [_Device_Help]
          jc      aexit                             ; exit if failed

          sgdt    qword ptr [gdtsave]               ; access the GDT ptr
          mov     ebx, dword ptr [gdtsave+2         ; get lin addr of GDT
          movzx   eax, word ptr [_io_gdt32]         ; build offset into table
          and     eax, 0fffffff8h                   ; mask away DPL
          add     ebx, eax                          ; build address in EBX

          mov     ax, word ptr [gdthelper]          ; selector to map GDT at
          mov     ecx, 08h                          ; a single entry (8 bytes)
          mov     dl, DevHlp_LinToGDTSelector
          call    [_Device_Help]
          jc      aexit0                            ; if failed exit

          mov     ax, word ptr [gdthelper]
          mov     es, ax                            ; build address to GDT
          xor     bx, bx

          mov     word ptr es:[bx], offset _io_call ; fix address off
          mov     word ptr es:[bx+2], cs            ; fix address sel
          mov     word ptr es:[bx+4], 0ec00h        ; a r0 386 call gate
          mov     word ptr es:[bx+6], 0000h         ; high offset

          mov     dl, DevHlp_FreeGDTSelector        ; free gdthelper
          call    [_Device_Help]
          jnc     short aexit

    aexit0: xor     ax,ax                           ; clear selector
          mov     word ptr [_io_gdt32], ax
    aexit:  popa                                    ; restore all registers
          mov     ax, word ptr [_io_gdt32]
          ret
    _acquire_gdt    endp
Figure 4: Initialization routine of FASTIO$ driver Since a device driver is initialized in ring 3, this routine does not work during startup. Rather, the driver will call this code once the first time some client opens the device. Thus, to use the driver, a small routine io_init() needs to be called first. Refer to the file iolib.asm that comes with this issue of EDM/2. A final improvement: Usually, C code passes arguments on the stack. A call gate can be configured to copy these parameters over to the new ring. But why should we do this? For really fast I/O access we pass the data in registers. This allows for direct replacement of I/O instructions in assembler code by a simple indirect call as shown in figure 5. The address of the indirect call is set up by the above mentioned io_init() procedure.
    EXTRN   ioentry:FWORD
      :
    MOV	  DX, portaddr
    MOV	  AL, 123
    MOV	  BX, 4		; function code 4 = write byte
    CALL	  FWORD PTR [ioentry]
      :
Figure 5: Calling I/O from assembler If the code needs to be called from C, we simply write a small stub that wraps a stack frame envelope around it, just as shown in figure 6.
    ; Calling convention:
    ;	  void c_outb(short port,char data)
    ;
    ;
    	  PUBLIC  _c_outb
    	  PUBLIC  c_outb
    _c_outb PROC
    c_outb:
    	  PUSH    EBP
    	  MOV     EBP, ESP		    ; set standard stack frame
    	  PUSH    EBX			    ; save register
    	  MOV     DX, WORD PTR [EBP+8]    ; get port
    	  MOV     AL, BYTE PTR [EBP+12]   ; get data
    	  MOV     BX, 4			    ; function code 4 = write byte
    	  CALL    FWORD PTR [ioentry]     ; call intersegment indirect 16:32
    	  POP     EBX			    ; restore bx
    	  POP     EBP			    ; return
    	  RET
    	  ALIGN   4
    _c_outb ENDP
Figure 6: A C callable I/O function The file iolib.asm contains a set of functions c_inX() and c_outX() for using I/O from any 32 bit compiler that supports the standard stack frame. The files iolib.a and iolib.lib are precompiled versions; the file iolib.h contains the C prototypes. In the complete driver, I gave up a small amount of the theoretically reachable performance. There are six basic I/O operations: IN and OUT instructions exist for transferring bytes, 16 bit words and 32 bit long words. To become really fast, one would have to provide a separate GDT selector for each of them. In a typical OS/2 system, this should not be a problem. However, if now everyone would start to add more routines, each with its own entry point, this resource could become rather quickly a scarce one. So I spent a function code, to be passed in the BX register, to multiplex the six functions into a single GDT selector. Refer to the io_call entry point in the fastio_a.asm driver source file. ## Conclusion The article demonstrated how a specialized device driver was used to assist a user process in performing direct I/O. The final overhead, compared to a pure device driver or a DOS program implementation, is just the CPU cycles of the indirect intersegment call through the call gate and the return instruction. Every other available method significantly adds a performance penalty. This also holds for I/O in a DOS Box, which was not explained in this article. It is to be expected, however, that this method will not be available any longer in future Power PC systems, so avoid the demonstrated trick unless absolutely necessary. |