# Programming Ruby ### The Pragmatic Programmer's Guide
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# Object-Oriented Design Libraries

One of the interesting things about Ruby is the way it blurs the distinction between design and implementation. Ideas that have to be expressed at the design level in other languages can be implemented directly in Ruby.

To help in this process, Ruby has support for some design-level strategies.

- The Visitor pattern (Design Patterns, ) is a way of traversing a collection without having to know the internal organization of that collection.
- Delegation is a way of composing classes more flexibly and dynamically than can be done using standard inheritance.
- The Singleton pattern is a way of ensuring that only one instantiation of a particular class exists at a time.
- The Observer pattern implements a protocol allowing one object to notify a set of interested objects when certain changes have occurred.

Normally, all four of these strategies require explicit code each time they're implemented. With Ruby, they can be abstracted into a library and reused freely and transparently.

Before we get into the proper library descriptions, let's get the simplest strategy out of the way.

## The Visitor Pattern

It's the method `each`.

Library: delegate

Object delegation is a way of composing objects---extending an object with the capabilities of another---at runtime. This promotes writing flexible, decoupled code, as there are no compile-time dependencies between the users of the overall class and the delegates.

The Ruby `Delegator` class implements a simple but powerful delegation scheme, where requests are automatically forwarded from a master class to delegates or their ancestors, and where the delegate can be changed at runtime with a single method call.

The `delegate.rb` library provides two mechanisms for allowing an object to forward messages to a delegate.

1. For simple cases where the class of the delegate is fixed, arrange for the master class to be a subclass of `DelegateClass`, passing the name of the class to be delegated as a parameter (Example 1). Then, in your class's `initialize` method, you'd call the superclass, passing in the object to be delegated. For example, to declare a class `Fred` that also supports all the methods in `Flintstone`, you'd write

       class Fred < DelegateClass(Flintstone)
         def initialize
           # ...
           super(Flintstone.new(...))
         end
         # ...
        end

   This is subtly different from using subclassing. With subclassing, there is only one object, which has the methods and the defined class, its parent, and their ancestors. With delegation there are two objects, linked so that calls to one may be delegated to the other.

2. For cases where the delegate needs to be dynamic, make the master class a subclass of `SimpleDelegator` (Example 2). You can also add delegation capabilities to an existing object using `SimpleDelegator` (Example 3). In these cases, you can call the `__setobj__` method in `SimpleDelegator` to change the object being delegated at runtime.

Example 1. Use the `DelegateClass` method and subclass the result when you need a class with its own behavior that also delegates to an object of another class. In this example, we assume that the `@sizeInInches` array is large, so we want only one copy of it. We then define a class that accesses it, converting the values to feet.

    require 'delegate'

    sizeInInches = [ 10, 15, 22, 120 ]

    class Feet < DelegateClass(Array)
      def initialize(arr)
        super(arr)
      end
      def [](*n)
        val = super(*n)
        case val.type
        when Numeric; val/12.0
        else;         val.collect {|i| i/12.0}
        end
      end
    end

`sizeInFeet = Feet.new(sizeInInches)`
`sizeInInches[0..3]` | » | `[10, 15, 22, 120]`
`sizeInFeet[0..3]` | » | `[0.8333333333, 1.25, 1.833333333, 10.0]`

Example 2. Use subclass `SimpleDelegator` when you want an object that both has its own behavior and delegates to different objects during its lifetime. This is an example of the State pattern. Objects of class `TicketOffice` sell tickets if a seller is available, or tell you to come back tomorrow if there is no seller.

    require 'delegate'

    class TicketSeller
      def sellTicket()
        return 'Here is a ticket'
      end
    end

    class NoTicketSeller
      def sellTicket()
        "Sorry-come back tomorrow"
       end
    end

    class TicketOffice < SimpleDelegator
      def initialize
        @seller = TicketSeller.new
        @noseller = NoTicketSeller.new
        super(@seller)
      end
      def allowSales(allow = true)
        __setobj__(allow ? @seller : @noseller)
        allow
      end
    end

`to = TicketOffice.new`
`to.sellTicket` | » | `"Here is a ticket"`
`to.allowSales(false)` | » | `false`
`to.sellTicket` | » | `"Sorry-come back tomorrow"`
`to.allowSales(true)` | » | `true`
`to.sellTicket` | » | `"Here is a ticket"`

Example 3. Create `SimpleDelegator` objects when you want a single object to delegate all its methods to two or more other objects.

`# Example 3 - delegate from existing object`
`seller = TicketSeller.new`
`noseller = NoTicketSeller.new`
`to = SimpleDelegator.new(seller)`
`to.sellTicket` | » | `"Here's a ticket"`
`to.sellTicket` | » | `"Here's a ticket"`
`to.__setobj__(noseller)`
`to.sellTicket` | » | `"Sorry-come back tomorrow"`
`to.__setobj__(seller)`
`to.sellTicket` | » | `"Here's a ticket"`

Library: observer

The Observer pattern, also known as Publish/Subscribe, provides a simple mechanism for one object to inform a set of interested third-party objects when its state changes.

In the Ruby implementation, the notifying class mixes in the `Observable` module, which provides the methods for managing the associated observer objects.

add_observer(obj) | Add obj as an observer on this object. obj will now receive notifications.
delete_observer(obj) | Delete obj as an observer on this object. It will no longer receive notifications.
delete_observers | Delete all observers associated with this object.
count_observers | Return the count of observers associated with this object.
changed(newState=`true`) | Set the changed state of this object. Notifications will be sent only if the changed state is `true`.
changed? | Query the changed state of this object.
notify_observers(*args) | If this object's changed state is true, invoke the `update` method in each currently associated observer in turn, passing it the given arguments. The changed state is then set to `false`.

The observers must implement the `update` method to receive notifications.

    require "observer"

      class Ticker # Periodically fetch a stock price
        include Observable

        def initialize(symbol)
          @symbol = symbol
        end

        def run
          lastPrice = nil
          loop do
            price = Price.fetch(@symbol)
            print "Current price: #{price}\n"
            if price != lastPrice
              changed                 # notify observers
              lastPrice = price
              notify_observers(Time.now, price)
            end
          end
        end
      end

      class Warner
        def initialize(ticker, limit)
          @limit = limit
          ticker.add_observer(self)   # all warners are observers
        end
      end

      class WarnLow < Warner
        def update(time, price)       # callback for observer
          if price < @limit
            print "--- #{time.to_s}: Price below #@limit: #{price}\n"
          end
        end
      end

      class WarnHigh < Warner
        def update(time, price)       # callback for observer
          if price > @limit
            print "+++ #{time.to_s}: Price above #@limit: #{price}\n"
          end
        end
      end

    ticker = Ticker.new("MSFT")
    WarnLow.new(ticker, 80)
    WarnHigh.new(ticker, 120)
    ticker.run

produces:

    Current price: 83
    Current price: 75
    --- Sun Jun 09 00:10:25 CDT 2002: Price below 80: 75
    Current price: 90
    Current price: 134
    +++ Sun Jun 09 00:10:25 CDT 2002: Price above 120: 134
    Current price: 134
    Current price: 112
    Current price: 79
    --- Sun Jun 09 00:10:25 CDT 2002: Price below 80: 79

Library: singleton

The Singleton design pattern ensures that only one instance of a particular class may be created.

The `singleton` library makes this simple to implement. Mix the `Singleton` module into each class that is to be a singleton, and that class's `new` method will be made private. In its place, users of the class call the method `instance`, which returns a singleton instance of that class.

In this example, the two instances of `MyClass` are the same object.

`require 'singleton'`
``
`class MyClass`
`include Singleton`
`end`
``
`a = MyClass.instance` | » | `#<MyClass:0x401b4ca8>`
`b = MyClass.instance` | » | `#<MyClass:0x401b4ca8>`

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Extracted from the book "Programming Ruby - The Pragmatic Programmer's Guide"
Copyright © 2001 by Addison Wesley Longman, Inc. This material may be distributed only subject to the terms and conditions set forth in the Open Publication License, v1.0 or later (the latest version is presently available at http://www.opencontent.org/openpub/)).

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